《Understanding How Components Fail》Donald J. Wulpi.1999

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研究零件如何失效

<Understanding How Components Fail> Second Edition
Donald J. Wulpi
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ...............................ix
Preface to the First Edition.....................................x
CHAPTER 1: Techniques of Failure Analysis ...........1
Procedure for Failure Analysis ........................................................2
Investigative Techniques .................................................................3
Normal Location of Fracture............................................................4
Questions to Ask about Fractures ....................................................6
Summary .........................................................................................10
CHAPTER 2: Distortion Failures ............................13
Types of Distortion Failure ............................................................13
Temporary Distortion .................................................................14
Permanent Distortion..................................................................14
Summary .........................................................................................19
CHAPTER 3: Basic Single-Load
Fracture Modes.................................................21
Shear Mode .....................................................................................22
Cleavage Mode ...............................................................................23
Other Fracture Modes.....................................................................24
Factors Affecting the Ductile Brittle Relationship.......................25
Summary .........................................................................................27
CHAPTER 4: Stress Systems Related to Single-Load
Fracture of Ductile and Brittle Metals ..................29
Pure Loading Systems ....................................................................30
Tension Loading .............................................................................30
Torsional Loading...........................................................................32
Compression Loading.....................................................................36
Bending Loading.............................................................................37
Fatigue .............................................................................................37
Summary .........................................................................................37
CHAPTER 5: Mechanical Properties ......................39
Elastic and Plastic Deformation.....................................................39
Effect of Temperature ....................................................................42
Nonlinear Behavior.........................................................................43
v
Bidirectional Stresses .....................................................................44
Effect of Stress Concentrations .....................................................46
Summary .........................................................................................48
CHAPTER 6: Stress Versus Strength .....................49
Elastic Stress Distributions for Simple Shapes.............................50
Summary .........................................................................................59
CHAPTER 7: Residual Stresses .............................61
Thermal Residual Stresses .............................................................65
Metallurgical Residual Stresses .....................................................70
Mechanical Residual Stresses ........................................................71
Chemical Effects on Residual Stresses .........................................75
Helpful Hints...................................................................................76
Summary .........................................................................................79
CHAPTER 8: Brittle Fracture .................................83
Brittle Fracture of Normally Ductile Steels .................................84
Characteristics of Brittle Fracture .................................................88
Microstructural Aspects of Brittle Fracture ..................................91
Combined Fracture Modes .............................................................99
Summary .......................................................................................100
CHAPTER 9: Ductile Fracture ..............................103
Characteristics of Ductile Fracture..............................................104
Microstructural Aspects of Ductile Fracture ..............................107
Cautions in Interpretation ............................................................114
Summary .......................................................................................115
CHAPTER 10: Fatigue Fracture ...........................117
Stages of Fatigue Fracture ...........................................................118
Microscopic Characteristics of Fatigue Fracture........................120
Macroscopic Characteristics of Fatigue Fracture .......................124
Lack of Deformation ................................................................124
Beachmarks...............................................................................125
Ratchet Marks ...........................................................................126
Similarities between Striations and Beachmarks ...................128
Differences between Striations and Beachmarks ...................129
Relationship of Stress to Strength in Fatigue .............................130
Laboratory Fatigue Testing..........................................................134
Other Types of Fatigue.................................................................136
Statistical Aspects of Fatigue.......................................................143
Examples of Fatigue Fracture ......................................................144
Summary .......................................................................................161
CHAPTER 11: Wear Failures—
Abrasive and Adhesive ..................................163
Abrasive Wear ..............................................................................164
Adhesive Wear..............................................................................173
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Fretting Wear ................................................................................177
Summary .......................................................................................180
CHAPTER 12: Wear Failures—Fatigue ................183
Contact Stress Fatigue ..................................................................185
Summary .......................................................................................202
CHAPTER 13: Corrosion Failures ........................205
Life Cycle of a Metal....................................................................206
Basic Nature of Corrosion............................................................207
Galvanic Corrosion.......................................................................207
Uniform Corrosion .......................................................................211
Crevice Corrosion.........................................................................213
Stress-Corrosion Cracking ..........................................................216
Corrosion Fatigue .........................................................................221
Summary .......................................................................................224
CHAPTER 14: Elevated-Temperature
Failures ..........................................................227
Creep..............................................................................................228
Elevated-Temperature Fatigue.....................................................231
Thermal Fatigue............................................................................233
Metallurgical Instabilities ............................................................234
Environmentally Induced Failure ................................................234
Cooling Methods ..........................................................................239
Summary .......................................................................................241
CHAPTER 15: Fracture Mechanics ......................243
Toughness and Fracture Mechanics ............................................244
Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics..............................................246
Modes of Loading.........................................................................247
Plane Strain and Plane Stress ......................................................248
Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness ........................................249
Crack Growth................................................................................251
Case History: Hydrotest Failure of a
Carbon Steel Pressure Vessel ..................................................252
Summary .......................................................................................255
Appendix: Fracture Mechanics Concepts ...........255
Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics..............................................255
Plane Strain and Plane Stress.......................................................257
Fracture Toughness Testing .........................................................258
Crack Growth: The Fracture Mechanics Approach
to Fatigue...................................................................................260
Applications of Fracture Mechanics............................................262
Glossary............................................................267
Index.................................................................281
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For a complete evaluation, the sequence of stages in the investigation
and analysis of failure, as detailed in Ref 1, is as follows:
1. Collection of background data and selection of samples
2. Preliminary examination of the failed part (visual examination and record
keeping)
3. Nondestructive testing
4. Mechanical testing (including hardness and toughness testing)
5. Selection, identification, preservation and/or cleaning of specimens (and
comparison with parts that have not failed)
6. Macroscopic examination and analysis and photographic documentation
(fracture surfaces, secondary cracks, and other surface phenomena)
7. Microscopic examination and analysis (electron microscopy may be necessary)
8. Selection and preparation of metallographic sections
9. Examination and analysis of metallographic specimens
10. Determination of failure mechanism
11. Chemical analysis (bulk, local, surface corrosion products, deposits or
coatings, and microprobe analysis)
12. Analysis of fracture mechanics (see Chapter 15)
13. Testing under simulated service conditions (special tests)
14. Analysis of all the evidence, formulation of conclusions, and writing the
report (including recommendations). Writing a report may not be necessary
in many product litigation cases; it is best to follow the advice of the
attorney or client with whom the analyst is working.

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本书目前有第3版，是2013年出版的，推荐给有英语基础的同行阅读